There are a number of possible explanations for the relatively small overlap between the four slum names. First, the census was conducted in 2001, but the NFHS survey was conducted in 2005-2006, which allowed slum areas to change significantly between the census and the NFHS observation and response reports (Montana et al., forthcoming), a problem that was not addressed in studies using these data (Swaminathan and Mukherji, 2012). A second reason for the difference in definition may be the significant variation in the components that make up the four definitions. While the census definition is primarily based on reporting (i.e. Recognition as a legal regulation by a governing body), the other definitions are composed of a variety of characteristics associated with slums, one definition based solely on meter observation and the other two differ significantly in their stringency in terms of the number of slum-related indicators that affect households – and, more broadly, communities, in which they are – must have. The word slum has negative connotations, and the use of this label for an area can be seen as an attempt to delegitimize that land use in hopes of reusing it. [18] Why could the UN definition be the only indicator of slums associated with poor child health? One possibility is that it is based on household reports of current living conditions, which can better capture disadvantages than census data based on administrative data collected nearly five years before the survey. Slums are dynamic in nature and frequent updates are required to maintain the accuracy of their identification (Montana et al., forthcoming); Indeed, the information collected at the same time as the measurement of children`s health can be particularly significant for nearby health risks. The crime rate in slums is correlated with inadequate law enforcement and inadequate public policing. In major cities in developing countries, law enforcement lags behind urban growth and slum expansion. Often, police are unable to reduce crime because slums are an ineffective crime prevention system due to ineffective urban planning and governance. These problems are not mainly due to Community indifference.
Clues and information from slums are scarce, roads are narrow and a potential death trap for patrolling, and many members of the slum community have an inherent distrust of the authorities in the face of fear, ranging from eviction to collecting unpaid utility bills, law and order. [173] The lack of formal recognition by governments also leads to few formal police and judicial institutions in the slums. [7] Security of tenure is important for slum dwellers as a genuine recognition of their housing status in urban areas. It also encourages them to upgrade their housing complexes to protect them from natural and unnatural hazards. [60] Undocumented property without legal rights to land also prevents slum settlers from applying for mortgages, which could worsen their financial situation. In addition, without land registration, the government faces difficulties in modernizing basic facilities and improving the living environment. [118] The uncertain ownership of the slum and the lack of socially and politically acceptable alternatives to slums also create difficulties in city-wide infrastructure development, such as rapid transit, power and sewer lines, highways, and roads. [124] In recent years, the number of slums has increased dramatically as the urban population has increased in developing countries. [233] Nearly one billion people worldwide live in slums, and some predict that number could rise to 2 billion by 2030 if governments and the global community ignore slums and continue with current urban policies. The United Nations Habitat Group believes that change is possible.
To achieve the goal of „cities without slums”, the United Nations calls on governments to implement strong urban planning, urban management, infrastructure development, slum upgrading and poverty reduction. [14] An ongoing study of health disparities in city centres (Montgomery, 2009) is therefore recommended, as is the broader recognition that slums are not homogeneous units (Gaur et al., 2013), but complex and dynamic. An important area of future research is to investigate the use of a slum scale, which can provide more information than a dichotomous measurement of slums. The use of a slum scale will indicate whether there is a cumulative nature of the negative effects of slums and/or a non-linear relationship between slum adversity and health outcomes for common mental disorders in a particularly disadvantaged slum community in Mumbai (Subbaraman et al., review). Clues have already been studied in the study of the urban environment in general; Dahly and Adair note that a measure of scale of urbanity using longitudinal data „surpasses the urban-rural dichotomy” (Dahly and Adair 2008). Although a slum index was proposed at a meeting of the Expert Group on Urban Indicators at the United Nations in 2002 (UN-HABITAT Urban Secretariat and Shelter Branch, 2002), no further action has been taken. Overcrowding has been associated with low space per person in an area, high occupancy rates, different families living together, and a high number of individual dwellings. Most slums are overcrowded, with five to six or more people sharing one-bedroom accommodation to cook, sleep and live. There are regional differences in the names by which slums are known in India.
In Delhi, slums are commonly referred to as „Jhuggi – Jhompdi”, while in Mumbai they are called „Jhopadpatti or Chawls”. Other well-known names are – „Ahatas” in Kanpur, „Bustees” in Kolkata, „Cheris” in Chennai and „Keris” in Bangalore. The biggest nutritional problems in slums are protein-energy malnutrition (PEM), vitamin A deficiency (VAD), iron deficiency anaemia (ADI) and diodea disease (IDD). [217] Malnutrition can sometimes lead to death in children. [221] Dr. Abhay Bang`s report shows that malnutrition kills 56,000 children each year in India`s urban slums. [222] Slums usually start on the outskirts of a city. Over time, the city may expand beyond the original slums to include the slums of the urban perimeter. New slums are sprout along the expanding city`s new frontiers, usually on public land, creating a sprawling mix of formal settlements, industries, commercial areas, and slums. This makes the original slums a valuable, densely populated property with many amenities attractive to the poor. [112] Many people move to urban areas mainly because cities promise more jobs, better schools for poor children, and diversified income opportunities than subsistence farming in rural areas.
[51] For example, in 1995, 95.8% of migrants in Surabaya, Indonesia, reported that employment was their main motivation for moving to the city. [52] However, some rural migrants may not find employment immediately due to their lack of skills and increasingly competitive labor markets, leading to financial shortages. [53] In contrast, many cities do not provide sufficient affordable housing for large numbers of rural migrant workers.