The formal study of adolescent psychology began with the publication of G. Stanley Hall`s Adolescence in 1904. Hall, the first president of the American Psychological Association, saw adolescence primarily as a time of turmoil and inner upheaval (storm and envy). This understanding of youth was based on two then new ways of understanding human behavior: Darwin`s theory of evolution and Freud`s psychodynamic theory. He believed that adolescence was a representation of the phylogenetic change of our human ancestors from primitive to civilized. Hall`s claims remained relatively undisputed until the 1950s, when psychologists such as Erik Erikson and Anna Freud began formulating their theories about adolescence. Freud believed that psychological disorders associated with youth were biologically grounded and culturally universal, while Erikson focused on the dichotomy between identity formation and role fulfillment. [90] Despite their different theories, these three psychologists agreed that adolescence was inherently a time of disorder and psychological confusion. The less turbulent aspects of adolescence, such as peer relationships and cultural influence, were largely ignored until the 1980s. From the 50s to the 80s, the focus of the field was mainly on describing patterns of behavior rather than explaining them.
[90] A number of social scientists, including anthropologist Margaret Mead and sociologist Mike Males, have repeatedly pointed to the contradictory treatment of laws affecting young people in the United States. As Males noted, the U.S. Supreme Court has „explicitly ruled that policymakers can impose adult responsibility and punishment on individual youth as if they were adults, while massively abrogating the rights of adolescents as if they were children.” At this age, there is also a greater likelihood of drug and alcohol use or mental disorders such as schizophrenia, eating disorders such as anorexia and depression. Increased testosterone and the relative lack of development of the prefrontal cortex in some adolescents can also lead to juvenile delinquency. A questionnaire called Teen Timetable was used to measure the age at which individuals believe teens should be able to engage in behaviors associated with independence. [203] This questionnaire was used to measure differences in cultural perceptions of adolescent autonomy, noting, for example, that white parents and adolescents tend to expect autonomy earlier than those of Asian descent. [203] It is therefore clear that there are cultural differences in the perception of youth autonomy and that these differences have an impact on the lifestyle and development of young people. Among young people in sub-Saharan Africa, the terms individuality and freedom may not be useful in understanding youth development. On the contrary, African notions of child and adolescent development are relational and interdependent. [204] Three neurotransmitters that play an important role in adolescent brain development are glutamate, dopamine, and serotonin. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter. During synaptic circumcision, which occurs during adolescence, most circumcised neural connections contain glutamate receptors or other excitatory neurotransmitters.
[61] For this reason, synaptic balance in the brain in early adulthood is more inhibitory than exciting. Self-centeredness in adolescents forms a confident desire to feel important in their peer groups and to enjoy social acceptance. [108] Unlike the contradictory aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self that is stable in all circumstances and includes past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a concept of self, while Erik Erikson argued that not everyone fully achieves their identity. Erikson`s theory of developmental stages involves an identity crisis, in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before engaging in their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a phase of „identity performance,” but also stressed that the identity challenge „is never fully solved once and for all at any given time.” [109] Young people are beginning to define themselves on the basis of their mass belonging. „Clothing helps teens explore new identities, separate from their parents, and connect with their peers.” Fashion has played an important role when it comes to „getting together” for teenagers; Fashion is constantly evolving, which corresponds to the development of the change in personality of teenagers. [110] Young people try to define their identity by consciously stylizing themselves in different ways in order to find what works best for them. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities is a major determinant of adolescent normative behaviour. For example, adolescents from certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities. [205] Household chores are often divided into personal care tasks and family care tasks.
However, the specific household responsibilities of young people can vary depending on the culture, family type and adolescence. [206] Some research has shown that adolescent participation in family work and routines has a positive impact on the development of self-esteem, care and care for others in young people. [205] Social, cultural and environmental factors are important priorities for adolescent health. Young people have specific health problems and developmental needs different from those of children or adults: the causes of diseases in adolescents are mainly psychosocial and not biological. Young people often engage in health-threatening behaviors that reflect adolescent development processes: experiences and explorations, including drug and alcohol use, sexual behaviors, and other risks that affect their physical and mental health. Adolescent health also includes sexual and reproductive health (SRH) of children and adolescents. [4] There are significant neurological changes that are expressed during pre-adolescence. White matter refers to the region of the nervous system that corresponds to neuronal axons that form fibers that transmit information through different regions of the brain.
In contrast, gray matter refers to the region of the nervous system that corresponds to the neural cell bodies that process and transmit neural signals. The volume of white matter increases at the age of 4 to 22 years at a relatively linear rate of about 12%, especially in the frontal, parietal and occipital lobes. [29] An increase in white matter volume may be correlated with improved fine motor performance, auditory processing, and the transmission of sensory information between areas of brain speech. In contrast, cortical gray matter increases in early life, reaches preadolescence peaks, and decreases in adulthood, with the exception of occipital lobe gray matter.